The electroencephalography (EEG) was invented 100 years ago. In the years since this device for monitoring brain electricity was invented, it has had an incredible impact on the way in which scientists study the human brain.

Since its first use, EEG has shaped researchers' understanding of cognitive processes, from perception to memory. It can also be essential for the diagnosis and treatment of diverse brain disorders, including epilepsy.

I’m a cognitive neuroscientist which uses EEGs to check how people remember events from their past. The one centesimal anniversary of the EEG is a possibility to reflect on the importance of this discovery in neuroscience and medicine.

Discovery of the EEG

On July 6, 1924, the psychiatrist Hans Berger conducted the first EEG recording on a humana 17-year-old boy undergoing neurosurgery. At the time, Berger and other researchers were conducting electrical recordings on the brains of animals.

What distinguished Berger was his obsession with physical basis of what he called psychic energyor mental effort, in humans. In a series of experiments spanning his early profession, Berger measured brain volume and temperature to check changes in mental processes similar to mental work, attention, and desire.

He then turned to recording electrical activity. Although he recorded the primary EEG traces within the human brain in 1924, Publication of results until 1929. These five intervening years were an agonizing period of self-doubt concerning the source of the EEG signal within the brain and of refining the experimental setup. Berger recorded lots of of EEGs on various subjects, including his own children, and experienced each experimental successes and setbacks.

Finally, he was convinced of his results and published a series of articles within the journal Archive for Psychiatry and hoped for a Nobel Prize. Unfortunately, the research community doubted his results and years passed before anyone else began using EEG in their very own research.

Berger was finally nominated for the Nobel Prize in 1940. But Nobel Prizes were not awarded this 12 months in every category as a result of World War II and the German occupation of Norway.

Neuronal oscillations

When many neurons are energetic at the identical time, generate an electrical signal strong enough to spread immediately through the conductive tissue of the brain, skull and scalp. EEG electrodes attached to the top can record these electrical signals.

Since the invention of the EEG, researchers have shown that neuronal activity oscillates at certain frequencies. In his first EEG recordings in 1924, Berger found that the predominant oscillatory activity was that which oscillated eight to 12 times per second, or 8 to 12 hertz, called Alpha vibrationsSince the invention of alpha rhythms, there have been many attempts to grasp how and why neurons oscillate.

It is believed that neuronal oscillations are essential for effective communication between specialized brain regions. For example, theta oscillations with a frequency of 4 to eight hertz are essential for communication between brain regions involved within the encoding and retrieval of memories in animals and humans.

The researchers then investigated whether or not they could alter neural oscillations and thereby influence the way in which neurons communicate with one another. Studies have shown that many behavioral and noninvasive methods can alter neural oscillations and result in changes in cognitive performance. Engaging in certain mental activities can trigger neural oscillations on the frequencies utilized by those mental activities. For example, my team's research found that Mindfulness meditation can increase theta frequency vibrations and improve memory recall.

Noninvasive methods of brain stimulation can goal frequencies of interest. For example, my team's ongoing research has shown that brain stimulation on the theta frequency result in improved memory recall.

EEG has also led to essential discoveries about how the brain processes information in many other cognitive domainsincluding how people perceive the world around them, how they focus their attention, how they convey through language and the way they process emotions.

Diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases

EEG is now widely used for diagnosis Sleep disorders and epilepsy and as a guide for the treatment of brain disorders.

Scientists are using EEGs to check whether memory could be improved through noninvasive brain stimulation. Although research continues to be in its infancy, there are already some promising results. For example, one study found that noninvasive brain stimulation at gamma frequency – 25 hertz – improved memory. Memory and neurotransmitter transmission in Alzheimer's disease.

A brand new variety of non-invasive brain stimulation, called temporal interference uses two high frequencies to generate neural activity equal to the difference between the stimulation frequencies. The high frequencies can higher penetrate the brain and reach the goal area. Researchers recently tested this method on humans by utilizing 2,000 hertz and a pair of,005 hertz to send 5 hertz theta frequencies to a vital brain region for memory, the hippocampus. This resulted in improvements in remember the name that’s related to a face.

Although these results are promising, further research is required to grasp the precise role of neural oscillations in cognition and to find out whether altering them can result in lasting improvements in cognition.

The way forward for the EEG

The one centesimal anniversary of the EEG provides a possibility to reflect on what it has taught us about how the brain works and what this technology can do in the long run.

In a survey For the journal Nature Human Behaviour, over 500 researchers who use EEG of their work were asked to make predictions concerning the way forward for the technology. What will likely be possible with EEG in the following 100 years?

Some researchers, including myself, predict that we are going to use EEGs to diagnose and goal brain diseases. Others consider that a affordable, portable EEG is widely used to enhance cognitive functions at home or is seamlessly integrated into virtual reality Applications. The possibilities are enormous.

Why babies are born prematurely remains to be unclear to researchers.

Obstetricians are excellent at managing the birth process. But in the case of predicting whether a baby can be born on time, science is still catching up. Research into the causes of preterm birth lags a long time behind research into other conditions like cancer. This means nurses, doctors, midwives and doulas don't have the tools and resources they should do the most effective job possible delivering babies. before the thirty seventh week of pregnancy.

One of the few known Risk aspects for premature birth is whether or not a pregnant person has previously given birth to a premature baby. Other aspects include a pregnancy with twins, triplets or more, and certain medical conditions reminiscent of urinary tract infections, hypertension or diabetes. However, knowing these risk aspects cannot at all times pinpoint the reason for the preterm birth.

Progress is slow, partly because much of the research to this point on preterm birth looks at pregnancy from the angle of Reproductive biologyThese include the large physiological changes within the reproductive, cardiovascular and hormonal systems of the pregnant woman and the influence of hormones and genetics on parents and fetus.

But pregnancy can also be a technical challenge because they’re physical forces. Clinicians take care of a median 7 pound (3.2 kg) baby in about 1 litre of amniotic fluid It is held in place by a membrane lower than 1 millimeter thick – all in a uterus that was originally the scale of a fist. This creates forces, pressures and mechanical stresses that may all result in conditions within the mother, fetus and placenta that may trigger premature birth.

In a greater than 150 years agoa physician realized that childbirth is a mechanical process, but he used Nineteenth-century technology to measure the pressure per area on the membranes that support pregnancy. Only now do researchers have the expertise in mechanical, electrical and computer engineering to deal with the challenges of premature birth.

However, research into preterm birth remains to be in its infancy. Scientists must first develop the tools needed to review premature births before they’ll diagnose and treat them. Our team of researchers is working on just that.

Numerous complications can result in premature birth

It is difficult to narrow down who’s susceptible to premature birth because there isn’t a single cause. Premature birth might be brought on by several aspects affecting the pregnant person, the fetus, the placenta or the membranes attached to the placenta that connect the fetus and mother.

Global, 1 in 10 live births are premature babies, i.e. children born before the thirty seventh week of pregnancy. Of these premature babies 30 to 40 % are brought on by premature rupture of the membranes, and one other 1% to 9% as a consequence of premature opening of the cervix.

With the present state of technology, premature births can rarely be prevented. Current screening tools to measure the chance of preterm birth are relatively primitive. Doctors use ultrasound to observe the newborn's size and position, they usually touch the cervix to feel whether it is softening. This is a traditional process before birth, but it surely is problematic if it occurs too early.

If the newborn doesn’t grow, possibly since the placenta isn’t receiving enough blood, the doctors perform Premature births through caesarean sections to forestall stillbirth. Preventive Caesarean sections are also sometimes used to forestall or treat preeclampsia or dangerously hypertension while pregnant.

In each cases, patients and doctors weigh the advantages of an early cesarean section for the fetus and oldsters against the risks related to premature birth, which include lifelong respiratory, vision, cardiovascular or other health problems for the kid.

The multitude of things involved in preterm birth make early diagnosis difficult, but a greater understanding of the biomechanical forces at work while pregnant may provide researchers with recent opportunities to go looking for diagnostic clues.

Approaching the challenge from different angles

Pregnancy is basically a physical processfrom the uterus stretching to make room for the newborn, to the cervix opening when labor starts and the mother has to push. And when something mechanical goes flawed, the results might be tragic.

For example, maternal risk aspects Causes of premature birth include uterine rupture or preeclampsia. The placenta can even separate from the uterine wall, which may cause the mother to bleed to death. In twins, extra amniotic fluid and blood are produced, which puts additional strain on the placenta and may trigger premature birth.

Our team of biomechanical and biomedical engineers works to know the underlying causes of preterm birth from multiple perspectives, at all times with a view to diagnosis and intervention.

One of us, Kristin Myersstudies the biology of tissue remodeling to quantify the biomechanics of pregnancy. Her laboratory creates computer models to measure how the uterus, cervix and fetal membranes bear the mechanical stress that happens while pregnant. She and her team Use ultrasound to review how the uterus grows and expands and what mechanical stress is placed on the cervix to predict whether it should fail too early. Using the uterus as a pressure gauge for the mechanical environment of pregnancy could help detect problems before they occur.

Another of us, Michelle Oyenexamines the Physics and materials science of soppy tissue The focus is on the mechanical properties of fetal membranes and nutrient transport within the placenta. Her lab, along with Myers' team, applies big data and machine learning to anonymized medical records to create digital twins – or computer models of a selected Patient health data – that would help predict the course of a pregnancy. This could help doctors treat or prevent pregnancy complications.

Finally, Melissa Scale uses a non-invasive technique called optical coherence tomographyThis imaging technique produces 3D images of tissues that can’t be captured by ultrasound or MRI, reminiscent of extremely thin fetal membranes. Her lab used this system to review how fetal membranes rupture under different pressures, providing a base of knowledge that might be used to create higher digital models of fetal membrane stress. Improved imaging of fetal membranes and the cervix can alert doctors when these structures are susceptible to failure.

Better imaging and higher models

The holy grail of premature birth prevention is early diagnosis. A premature birth prevention checklist can assist protect the health of mother and child.

This checklist might appear like this: As soon as you discover out you're pregnant, your doctor will order an imaging test to find out the scale of your uterus and cervix. Then, they could take a swab of vaginal fluid to investigate biological changes in your cervix.

Better modeling techniques could assess the course of your pregnancy, and more precise imaging tools could measure changes over time. With higher prediction of when labor will begin, doctors and patients could make a more informed decision about whether a cesarean section is required.

An accurate early warning checklist for preterm births can be years away, but researchers in reproductive biology, epidemiology, bioinformatics and engineering are working hard to raised understand how babies are born and the numerous complications that may occur, including premature birth.

We consider that engineering – creative problem solving using technology – is a critical complement to the multidisciplinary approach required to deal with the complexity of preterm birth.